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Recent increases in the volume and diversity of international labour migration, and in particular the feminisation of these movements, suggest that the number of families fractured by migration is also growing tremendously. Gender-differentiated transnational migration is no doubt an increasingly significant driver of contemporary social transformation of the ‘family/household’ in sending communities, as clearly seen in its impact on changing familial arrangements and relationships of care. Research has shown that labour migration is often a family livelihood project rather than an individual strategy and socio-economic outcomes of labour migration, therefore, affect not only the migrant but also the left-behind family as a whole.

In this paper we set out to:

(1) review the academic literature on the effects of international migration on left-behind families;

(2) point out major implications and challenges for migration and development policy, and the practices concerning left-behind families of migrants;

(3) provide recommendations to different social actors including the state, civil society and corporate entities; and

(4) highlight questions for discussion during the forum.

The review of selected academic literature on left-behind families is centred on the effects of international migration on:

(a) the household structure and relationships within the transnational household;

(b) remittances and the family’s well-being;

(c) gender roles, identities and relations;

(d) intergenerational relations; and

(e) left-behind children’s health and well-being (including educational outcomes).

Although findings from academic research are generally mixed, one salient observation that emerges from the literature review is that while international labour migration generates substantial economic resources that contribute to left-behind families’ improved access to healthcare and education, the social costs it brings about are equally significant. The literature shows that children and the elderly are most vulnerable to the adverse effects of international migration and hence, require special attention in development policies and practices.

The major challenges for migration and development policy, and practice that arise from academic research findings include:

(a) supporting the elderly grandparents who themselves need care and support but are often called to substitute for migrant parents in childcare and domestic work;

(b) helping migrants and their families sustain their relationships across transnational spaces in order to minimise the negative impacts of migration on family relations; and

(c) minimizing migrant families’ economic stress and debts caused by exorbitant broker fees.

It is important for the government of labour-sending countries to acknowledge not only the benefits but also the costs of international labour migration so as to create an effective legal and institutional framework as well as suitable supporting mechanisms for left-behind families. In minimising the negative impacts on both migrants and left-behind kin, especially children, migration can then be a sustainable development strategy.

In considering policy interventions relating to left-behind families, we emphasize that the impact of migration is highly variable and complex. Left-behind families can be, and are, affected not only by the migration process itself but also by circumstances and policies relating to broader processes including development and urbanization at different levels. Issues discussed in the paper cannot be handled single-handedly by the state but require the involvement of different actors including civil society, businesses and local communities in labour-sending areas in supporting left-behind families. Therefore, different sets of recommendations are offered to the various groups involved.

Recommendations to the state include:

(a) Sending nations should be united in applying pressure on receiving nations to sign and ratify the United Nations’ 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICMW);

(b) More effective regulation and control of the ‘migration industry’; and

(c) Establishment of support schemes directed at left-behind families including provision of medical benefits and counselling services for children and the elderly, and offering academic support to children.

Recommendations to the civil society (and even businesses) include:

(a) Offering left-behind families free or cheaper access to internet so that they can communicate with migrants easily and regularly;

(b) Providing training on remittances management and consultation on investment strategies;

(c) Giving both left-behind children and adults psychological counselling and any other necessary intervention; and

(d) Engaging both migrants and families in pre-departure briefing to prepare them to cope with any problems relating to long-term separation.

Recommendations to banks include:

(a) Providing prospective migrants with low-interest loans, not requiring collaterals for small loans, simplifying procedures, and relaxing eligibility criteria to prevent families from taking high- interest loans from exploitative moneylenders; and

(b) Reducing remittance charges and offering migrant families specialized investment products and services such as insurance, pension and real estate advice.